下文中提到的語法錯誤,看著可能較為簡單,但請勿掉以輕心,在列的都是在英語論文寫作中常出現(xiàn)的問題。學明白這些內容,對自己的英語文本理解能力和翻譯能力都有極大幫助。
助動詞(helping verbs 或 auxiliary verbs)包括 will、shall、may、might、can、could、must、ought to、should、would、used to、need 等,用法是與主要動詞一同使用,表達時間和情緒。助動詞和主要動詞的組合會形成動詞短語(verb phrase)或動詞字串(verb string)。在下列的句子中,“will have been”是助動詞,而“studying”是主要動詞,并將整個動詞字串劃上了底線。
*動詞字串(verb string):A verb string is a construction formed by one or more verbs in sequence. Up to four verbs can precede the main verb in a verb string (She could have been being starved). In English, the verb string is the way that variations in time or mood are expressed.
? As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
要記得,副詞和縮寫形式從技術上來說,不是動詞的一部分。在“He has already started.”此句中,副詞 already 修飾了動詞,但是并非動詞的一部分。同理可證,“He hasn’t started yet.”中的“n’t”也是如此(縮寫式中 n’t 代表的副詞 not 不是動詞 has started 的一部分)。Shall、will 和 have、do、be 的各形態(tài)與主要動詞的組合表示時間和語氣。作為助動詞使用時,be 動詞、have、do 可以借由改變形態(tài),表示主旨和時間的改變。
? I shall go now.
? He had won the election.
? They did write that novel together.
? I am going now.
? He was winning the election.
? They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Shall 、Will、Should 的用法
在英式英語中,shall 的功用是表達第一人稱 I、we 的一般將來時,如“Shall we meet by the river?”,而 will 是用于所有人稱的一般將來時。于第一人稱使用 will 會傳達出說話者的決心,如“We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!”。于第二、第三人稱使用 shall 帶有對主旨有某種承諾的意味,如“This shall be revealed to you in good time.”。這樣的用法在美式英語中也肯定管用,但是 shall 的使用頻率相對地低。不過,由于兩者的縮寫式都是“’ll”,使用縮寫會使兩者間的差異模糊化,在美式英語中,除了第一人稱的禮貌性提問(含有詢問許可的成分)外,鮮少使用 shall:
? Shall we go now?
? Shall I call a doctor for you?
在第二句中,許多寫作者會改用 should,但是 should 比 shall更不篤定。在美式英語中,表達將來時,除了上述的情況,幾乎都會用 will。在正式文件中(法律或法制文件、會議紀錄等),shall 常用來表達義務,即使是第三或第二人稱的架構中也會使用:
? The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
? The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester.
現(xiàn)今,should 常會用 would 取代,但是 should 依然會用來表示“ought to”,如下:
? You really shouldn’t do that.
? If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
英式英文和非常正式的美式英文中,可能時有耳聞或偶爾會讀到 should 用于第一人稱的狀況,用來表達“I should prefer iced tea.”這一類的概念,或在嘗試表達意見時使用,如:
? I should imagine they’ll vote Conservative.
? I should have thought so.
Do、Does、Did 的用法
在一般現(xiàn)在時中,do 的功用是表達否定和提問的助動詞,does于現(xiàn)在時第三人稱單數時使用,did 是所有人稱的過去時用法,不論單復數都通用。
? I don’t study at night.
? She doesn’t work here anymore.
? Do you attend this school?
? Does he work here?
本動詞也可用于將主要動詞省略的簡短回答。
? Does she work here? No, she doesn’t work here. 在 Yes-No 問句中,do 及
其相關變化型會在主詞和跟隨主語的動詞之前。
? Did your grandmother know Truman?
? Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
表達相似度和差異時,可以有效利用 do 的變化型搭配上 so 和neither。
? My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
? My wife doesn’t like spinach; neither do I.
Do 之所以好用,還有一個原因是不必重復動詞。
? Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
? Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
英文中有許多種 do 的強調用法。
1. 強調整個句子:“He does like spinach. He really does!”
2. 加強祈使句的強度:“Do come in.”(實則柔化命令)。
3. 加強頻率副詞:“He never did understand his father.”
4. 反對否定描述:“You didn’t do your homework, did you?”
5. 對先前的否定描述詢問厘清的問題:“Chen didn’t take the
tools.”、“Then who did take the tools?”
6. 表示強烈的讓步:“Although Mr. Wang denied any wrongdoing, he did return some of the gifts.”
在沒有其他情態(tài)動詞存在的情況下,do 的變化形會用于問題和否定句構,這稱為被動語態(tài)(passive voice)。
? Did Chen get selected by the committee?
? The audience didn’t get riled up by the politician.
Have、Has、Had 的用法
“To + have”會用于產生現(xiàn)在完成時和過去完成時,完成時意指某事在過去發(fā)生了,現(xiàn)在完成時是指某事已經發(fā)生了,而且可能會持續(xù)發(fā)生,過去完成時則是指某事發(fā)生前發(fā)生了另外一件某事?!癟o have”也會與其他情態(tài)動詞一起使用,表達過去的可能性。
? “To have”作為肯定描述時,可以表達對某事會發(fā)生的肯定程度(適當的情態(tài) have 過去分詞的組合):“Mei-ing must have left already.”、“They may have voted already.”
? 作為否定描述時,情態(tài)動詞加上 not + have 過去分詞,表示您對某事不會發(fā)生的肯定程度:“Mr. Wang might not have known about the gifts.”
? 詢問過去的可能性,情態(tài)動詞加上主詞 have 過去分詞:“Could Mr. Wang have known about the gifts?”
? 簡答形式,情態(tài)動詞加上 have:“The evidence is pretty positive. He must have.”
“To have ”(有時搭配 to get)用來表達邏輯推論:
? It’s been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
? He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
“Have”常與不定式搭配形成意思類似 must 的助動詞。
? I have to have a car like that!
? She has to pay her own tuition at college.
情態(tài)動詞(Modal Auxiliaries)
其他的助動詞稱為情態(tài)動詞(modal auxiliaries 或modals),包括can、could、may、might、must、ought to、shall、should、will、would 等,這類助動詞不會因為主語不同而改變形態(tài)。實際操作一下,試著將這些情態(tài)動詞替換下表中的 can,與下面列出的各主語搭配。
情態(tài)動詞 Can 的用法
? 表達能力(能夠達成特定事項或是知道如何進行某事):
He can speak Chinese but he can’t write it very well.
? 表達許可(被允許去做某事):Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room?(注意,can 比 may 還要不正式,此外,有些作者會反對在此情境下使用 can。)
? 表達理論上的可能性:American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there’s a profit in it.
情態(tài)動詞 Could 的用法
? 表達過去的能力:I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
? 表達過去或未來的許可:Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
? 表達現(xiàn)在的可能性:We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
? 表達假設情境下的可能性或能力:If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
? 表達能力時,can 和 could 也常常帶有表達意愿的意思:
Can you help me with my homework?
Can 與 May 的差異
Can 是用于表達做某事的能力或力量,而 may 表達做某事的許可。
May 及 Might 的用法
另外兩個更棘手的情態(tài)動詞是 may 和 might,當處于給予或尋求許可的語境中時,might 是 may 的過去時。Might 比起 may更為委婉。
? May I leave class early?
? If I’ve finished all my work and I’m really quiet, might I leave early?
在表達可能性的語境中,may 和 might 可以是現(xiàn)在時,也可以是將來時,結構為 might + have + 過去分詞則為過去時:
? She might be my advisor next semester.
? She may be my advisor next semester.
? She might have advised me not to take biology.
避免將 may 的可能性語義與 might 作為假設情境的意涵混淆,舉例來說,假設機場有直升機墜毀,在一名新聞播報員的初始報告中,在尚未集齊所有事實之前,他可以說機師“may have been injured(可能受傷了)”事后,結果發(fā)現(xiàn)機師其實沒事,該播報員可以改口說該機師“might have been injured(可能會因此受傷)”,因為這句話的語境是從未發(fā)生的假設狀況。還有一個例子是:A body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that “without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified.” 因為該尸體事實上已經確認了身份,所以明顯應該要用 might。
Will 及 Would 的用法
在特定的語境中,will 和 would 可以互相替換,但會有些許不同。注意,“’ll”這個縮寫常用于表示 will。Will 可以用來表達意愿:“I’ll wash the dishes if you dry.”也可以表達意圖(特別是第一人稱):“I’ll do my exercises later on.”,以及預測:
? 特定:The meeting will be over soon.
? 無時間限制:Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
? 慣常:The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would 可用以表示意愿:“Would you please take off your hat?”也可以表示堅持,相當少見的用法,重音會放在 would 上:
“Now you’ve ruined everything. You would act that way.”以及有特色的活動:
? 風俗:After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
? 典型(日常):She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
在主語從句中,would 可以表示假設語氣:“My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.”最后,would 可以表示可能性:“I hear a whistle. That would be the five o’clock train.”
Used to 的用法
“Used to”的助動詞結構是用于表示過去發(fā)生的動作,或許是習慣性的,但是該動作現(xiàn)在已經不再是習慣性發(fā)生了。
? We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
此動詞的拼法對某些人來說是個問題,因為“-ed”結尾在說話中很容易會消失:“We yoostoo take long trips.”,但是 -ed不該在寫作中消失,但是也不是沒有例外。當助動詞與 did 助動詞結合時,該助動詞拿去了過去時的功能,因此 -ed 的結尾就省去了。這種狀況在疑問句中經常發(fā)生:
? Didn’t you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
? It didn’t use to be that way.
Used to 也可以用來表達習慣于或熟悉了某事物的感覺:
? The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we’re used to it by now.
? I like these old sneakers; I’m used to them.
Used to 最好留到口語情境上再使用,這個助動詞在正式或學術寫作中無立足之地。
同音異義詞(Homonyms)
雖然word的拼寫檢查很有用,但不是萬能的,因為拼寫檢查無法辨別同音異義詞,也就是發(fā)音相同但拼法不同的詞。要想抓出這類錯誤的唯一方法是進行仔細的校稿,最好是將文件印出來校對。值得注意的同音異義詞有:its vs. it’s、your vs. you’re、their vs. they’re 或 there。
引用符號(Quotation Punctuation)
許多人常會對引用資料時的標點符號用法感到混淆。句號和逗號須落在引用符號的內側。
? The first line of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities, “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times,” resonates with many people.
? Shakespeare’s theme is embodied in Macbeth’s line, “It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.”
問號、冒號、分號則有不同的規(guī)則,若是這類標點符號是所引用的資料的一部分時,要放在引用符號的內側,若不是所引用資料的一部分,則放在引用符號之外。
? He asked, “Did you lie?”
? Who said “I cannot tell a lie”?
括號的用法(Parenthetical Punctuation)
使用圓括號(parentheses)或方括號(square brackets)時,如果括號內的資料是句子中的一部分,則將標點符號置于后面的括號之后。
? Monarchs migrate from the Great Lakes to the forests of Mexico in winter (November to February).
如果括號內的資料自成一句,將結尾符號放在最后的括號內。
? Monarchs migrate from the Great Lakes to the forests of Mexico in winter. (They are there from November through late February.)
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