下文中提到的語法錯(cuò)誤,看著可能較為簡單,但請勿掉以輕心,在列的都是在英語論文寫作中常出現(xiàn)的問題。學(xué)明白這些內(nèi)容,對自己的英語文本理解能力和翻譯能力都有極大幫助。
助動詞(helping verbs 或 auxiliary verbs)包括 will、shall、may、might、can、could、must、ought to、should、would、used to、need 等,用法是與主要動詞一同使用,表達(dá)時(shí)間和情緒。助動詞和主要動詞的組合會形成動詞短語(verb phrase)或動詞字串(verb string)。在下列的句子中,“will have been”是助動詞,而“studying”是主要動詞,并將整個(gè)動詞字串劃上了底線。
*動詞字串(verb string):A verb string is a construction formed by one or more verbs in sequence. Up to four verbs can precede the main verb in a verb string (She could have been being starved). In English, the verb string is the way that variations in time or mood are expressed.
? As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
要記得,副詞和縮寫形式從技術(shù)上來說,不是動詞的一部分。在“He has already started.”此句中,副詞 already 修飾了動詞,但是并非動詞的一部分。同理可證,“He hasn’t started yet.”中的“n’t”也是如此(縮寫式中 n’t 代表的副詞 not 不是動詞 has started 的一部分)。Shall、will 和 have、do、be 的各形態(tài)與主要動詞的組合表示時(shí)間和語氣。作為助動詞使用時(shí),be 動詞、have、do 可以借由改變形態(tài),表示主旨和時(shí)間的改變。
? I shall go now.
? He had won the election.
? They did write that novel together.
? I am going now.
? He was winning the election.
? They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Shall 、Will、Should 的用法
在英式英語中,shall 的功用是表達(dá)第一人稱 I、we 的一般將來時(shí),如“Shall we meet by the river?”,而 will 是用于所有人稱的一般將來時(shí)。于第一人稱使用 will 會傳達(dá)出說話者的決心,如“We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!”。于第二、第三人稱使用 shall 帶有對主旨有某種承諾的意味,如“This shall be revealed to you in good time.”。這樣的用法在美式英語中也肯定管用,但是 shall 的使用頻率相對地低。不過,由于兩者的縮寫式都是“’ll”,使用縮寫會使兩者間的差異模糊化,在美式英語中,除了第一人稱的禮貌性提問(含有詢問許可的成分)外,鮮少使用 shall:
? Shall we go now?
? Shall I call a doctor for you?
在第二句中,許多寫作者會改用 should,但是 should 比 shall更不篤定。在美式英語中,表達(dá)將來時(shí),除了上述的情況,幾乎都會用 will。在正式文件中(法律或法制文件、會議紀(jì)錄等),shall 常用來表達(dá)義務(wù),即使是第三或第二人稱的架構(gòu)中也會使用:
? The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
? The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester.
現(xiàn)今,should 常會用 would 取代,但是 should 依然會用來表示“ought to”,如下:
? You really shouldn’t do that.
? If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
英式英文和非常正式的美式英文中,可能時(shí)有耳聞或偶爾會讀到 should 用于第一人稱的狀況,用來表達(dá)“I should prefer iced tea.”這一類的概念,或在嘗試表達(dá)意見時(shí)使用,如:
? I should imagine they’ll vote Conservative.
? I should have thought so.
Do、Does、Did 的用法
在一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)中,do 的功用是表達(dá)否定和提問的助動詞,does于現(xiàn)在時(shí)第三人稱單數(shù)時(shí)使用,did 是所有人稱的過去時(shí)用法,不論單復(fù)數(shù)都通用。
? I don’t study at night.
? She doesn’t work here anymore.
? Do you attend this school?
? Does he work here?
本動詞也可用于將主要動詞省略的簡短回答。
? Does she work here? No, she doesn’t work here. 在 Yes-No 問句中,do 及
其相關(guān)變化型會在主詞和跟隨主語的動詞之前。
? Did your grandmother know Truman?
? Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
表達(dá)相似度和差異時(shí),可以有效利用 do 的變化型搭配上 so 和neither。
? My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
? My wife doesn’t like spinach; neither do I.
Do 之所以好用,還有一個(gè)原因是不必重復(fù)動詞。
? Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
? Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
英文中有許多種 do 的強(qiáng)調(diào)用法。
1. 強(qiáng)調(diào)整個(gè)句子:“He does like spinach. He really does!”
2. 加強(qiáng)祈使句的強(qiáng)度:“Do come in.”(實(shí)則柔化命令)。
3. 加強(qiáng)頻率副詞:“He never did understand his father.”
4. 反對否定描述:“You didn’t do your homework, did you?”
5. 對先前的否定描述詢問厘清的問題:“Chen didn’t take the
tools.”、“Then who did take the tools?”
6. 表示強(qiáng)烈的讓步:“Although Mr. Wang denied any wrongdoing, he did return some of the gifts.”
在沒有其他情態(tài)動詞存在的情況下,do 的變化形會用于問題和否定句構(gòu),這稱為被動語態(tài)(passive voice)。
? Did Chen get selected by the committee?
? The audience didn’t get riled up by the politician.
Have、Has、Had 的用法
“To + have”會用于產(chǎn)生現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)和過去完成時(shí),完成時(shí)意指某事在過去發(fā)生了,現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)是指某事已經(jīng)發(fā)生了,而且可能會持續(xù)發(fā)生,過去完成時(shí)則是指某事發(fā)生前發(fā)生了另外一件某事。“To have”也會與其他情態(tài)動詞一起使用,表達(dá)過去的可能性。
? “To have”作為肯定描述時(shí),可以表達(dá)對某事會發(fā)生的肯定程度(適當(dāng)?shù)那閼B(tài) have 過去分詞的組合):“Mei-ing must have left already.”、“They may have voted already.”
? 作為否定描述時(shí),情態(tài)動詞加上 not + have 過去分詞,表示您對某事不會發(fā)生的肯定程度:“Mr. Wang might not have known about the gifts.”
? 詢問過去的可能性,情態(tài)動詞加上主詞 have 過去分詞:“Could Mr. Wang have known about the gifts?”
? 簡答形式,情態(tài)動詞加上 have:“The evidence is pretty positive. He must have.”
“To have ”(有時(shí)搭配 to get)用來表達(dá)邏輯推論:
? It’s been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
? He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
“Have”常與不定式搭配形成意思類似 must 的助動詞。
? I have to have a car like that!
? She has to pay her own tuition at college.
情態(tài)動詞(Modal Auxiliaries)
其他的助動詞稱為情態(tài)動詞(modal auxiliaries 或modals),包括can、could、may、might、must、ought to、shall、should、will、would 等,這類助動詞不會因?yàn)橹髡Z不同而改變形態(tài)。實(shí)際操作一下,試著將這些情態(tài)動詞替換下表中的 can,與下面列出的各主語搭配。
情態(tài)動詞 Can 的用法
? 表達(dá)能力(能夠達(dá)成特定事項(xiàng)或是知道如何進(jìn)行某事):
He can speak Chinese but he can’t write it very well.
? 表達(dá)許可(被允許去做某事):Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room?(注意,can 比 may 還要不正式,此外,有些作者會反對在此情境下使用 can。)
? 表達(dá)理論上的可能性:American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there’s a profit in it.
情態(tài)動詞 Could 的用法
? 表達(dá)過去的能力:I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
? 表達(dá)過去或未來的許可:Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
? 表達(dá)現(xiàn)在的可能性:We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
? 表達(dá)假設(shè)情境下的可能性或能力:If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
? 表達(dá)能力時(shí),can 和 could 也常常帶有表達(dá)意愿的意思:
Can you help me with my homework?
Can 與 May 的差異
Can 是用于表達(dá)做某事的能力或力量,而 may 表達(dá)做某事的許可。
May 及 Might 的用法
另外兩個(gè)更棘手的情態(tài)動詞是 may 和 might,當(dāng)處于給予或?qū)で笤S可的語境中時(shí),might 是 may 的過去時(shí)。Might 比起 may更為委婉。
? May I leave class early?
? If I’ve finished all my work and I’m really quiet, might I leave early?
在表達(dá)可能性的語境中,may 和 might 可以是現(xiàn)在時(shí),也可以是將來時(shí),結(jié)構(gòu)為 might + have + 過去分詞則為過去時(shí):
? She might be my advisor next semester.
? She may be my advisor next semester.
? She might have advised me not to take biology.
避免將 may 的可能性語義與 might 作為假設(shè)情境的意涵混淆,舉例來說,假設(shè)機(jī)場有直升機(jī)墜毀,在一名新聞播報(bào)員的初始報(bào)告中,在尚未集齊所有事實(shí)之前,他可以說機(jī)師“may have been injured(可能受傷了)”事后,結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)機(jī)師其實(shí)沒事,該播報(bào)員可以改口說該機(jī)師“might have been injured(可能會因此受傷)”,因?yàn)檫@句話的語境是從未發(fā)生的假設(shè)狀況。還有一個(gè)例子是:A body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that “without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified.” 因?yàn)樵撌w事實(shí)上已經(jīng)確認(rèn)了身份,所以明顯應(yīng)該要用 might。
Will 及 Would 的用法
在特定的語境中,will 和 would 可以互相替換,但會有些許不同。注意,“’ll”這個(gè)縮寫常用于表示 will。Will 可以用來表達(dá)意愿:“I’ll wash the dishes if you dry.”也可以表達(dá)意圖(特別是第一人稱):“I’ll do my exercises later on.”,以及預(yù)測:
? 特定:The meeting will be over soon.
? 無時(shí)間限制:Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
? 慣常:The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would 可用以表示意愿:“Would you please take off your hat?”也可以表示堅(jiān)持,相當(dāng)少見的用法,重音會放在 would 上:
“Now you’ve ruined everything. You would act that way.”以及有特色的活動:
? 風(fēng)俗:After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
? 典型(日常):She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
在主語從句中,would 可以表示假設(shè)語氣:“My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.”最后,would 可以表示可能性:“I hear a whistle. That would be the five o’clock train.”
Used to 的用法
“Used to”的助動詞結(jié)構(gòu)是用于表示過去發(fā)生的動作,或許是習(xí)慣性的,但是該動作現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)不再是習(xí)慣性發(fā)生了。
? We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
此動詞的拼法對某些人來說是個(gè)問題,因?yàn)椤?ed”結(jié)尾在說話中很容易會消失:“We yoostoo take long trips.”,但是 -ed不該在寫作中消失,但是也不是沒有例外。當(dāng)助動詞與 did 助動詞結(jié)合時(shí),該助動詞拿去了過去時(shí)的功能,因此 -ed 的結(jié)尾就省去了。這種狀況在疑問句中經(jīng)常發(fā)生:
? Didn’t you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
? It didn’t use to be that way.
Used to 也可以用來表達(dá)習(xí)慣于或熟悉了某事物的感覺:
? The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we’re used to it by now.
? I like these old sneakers; I’m used to them.
Used to 最好留到口語情境上再使用,這個(gè)助動詞在正式或?qū)W術(shù)寫作中無立足之地。
同音異義詞(Homonyms)
雖然word的拼寫檢查很有用,但不是萬能的,因?yàn)槠磳憴z查無法辨別同音異義詞,也就是發(fā)音相同但拼法不同的詞。要想抓出這類錯(cuò)誤的唯一方法是進(jìn)行仔細(xì)的校稿,最好是將文件印出來校對。值得注意的同音異義詞有:its vs. it’s、your vs. you’re、their vs. they’re 或 there。
引用符號(Quotation Punctuation)
許多人常會對引用資料時(shí)的標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號用法感到混淆。句號和逗號須落在引用符號的內(nèi)側(cè)。
? The first line of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities, “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times,” resonates with many people.
? Shakespeare’s theme is embodied in Macbeth’s line, “It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.”
問號、冒號、分號則有不同的規(guī)則,若是這類標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號是所引用的資料的一部分時(shí),要放在引用符號的內(nèi)側(cè),若不是所引用資料的一部分,則放在引用符號之外。
? He asked, “Did you lie?”
? Who said “I cannot tell a lie”?
括號的用法(Parenthetical Punctuation)
使用圓括號(parentheses)或方括號(square brackets)時(shí),如果括號內(nèi)的資料是句子中的一部分,則將標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號置于后面的括號之后。
? Monarchs migrate from the Great Lakes to the forests of Mexico in winter (November to February).
如果括號內(nèi)的資料自成一句,將結(jié)尾符號放在最后的括號內(nèi)。
? Monarchs migrate from the Great Lakes to the forests of Mexico in winter. (They are there from November through late February.)
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